Water Quality in Sioux City, IA

What is Perfluoroheptanoic acid?

Perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA) is a perfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) that is used in various industrial applications, including the production of fluoropolymers. It is characterized by a carbon chain of seven carbon atoms, fully fluorinated, which makes it resistant to degradation and highly persistent in the environment.

Health Effects

Exposure to perfluoroheptanoic acid has been associated with various health effects, including potential liver damage, immune system effects, and developmental issues. Long-term exposure may lead to increased cholesterol levels and potential impacts on thyroid hormone levels.

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What is Perfluorobutanesulfonic acid?

Part of a class of synthetic compounds known as polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) widely used to make products more resistant to stains, water, and grease. For example, PFAS have been used in nonstick cookware, textiles, food packaging, electronics, cleaners, and many other consumer products.

Health Effects

As with many PFAS compounds, research into the health effects of PFBS is rapidly evolving. Animal studies have identified associations between PFBS and toxicity to the thyroid, liver, and kidneys as well as adverse effects to fetal development. Studies suggest that pregnant women and their developing fetuses are the most susceptible subpopulations for these adverse health effects due to hormone disruption.

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What is Perfluorohexanoic acid?

Perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA) is part of a class of synthetic compounds known as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) widely used to make products more resistant to stains, water, and grease. PFHxA is not currently commercially produced, but results from the breakdown of other PFAS and as a potential impurity in chemical processing. Like many other PFAS, it is highly persistent in the environment and the body. Adverse health effects associated with elevated PFHxA levels include liver and developmental toxicity.

Health Effects

As with many PFAS compounds, research into the health effects of PFHxA is rapidly evolving. Animal studies show associations between PFHxA and liver toxicity, as well as developmental effects (low birth weight and offspring mortality).

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What is Total THMs?

Group of contaminants that form in drinking water systems when a disinfectant, typically chlorine, reacts with organic matter

Health Effects

Drinking water standards for total THMs are based on evidence of carcinogenicity in human and animal studies, as well as liver and kidney toxicity observed in animal studies. Individual THMs have been further associated with developmental, immune, spleen, and genotoxicity.

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What is Chloroform?

Member of trihalomethanes (THMs) that form in water treated with chlorine and is generally the most abundant THM formed in drinking water

Health Effects

Health protective benchmarks for chloroform have been developed based on kidney and liver carcinogenicity observed in animal studies, and liver toxicity observed in occupational studies. The EPA classifies chloroform as a probable human carcinogen based on animal evidence, and there is additional epidemiological evidence that may increase the risk of colon and bladder cancer in humans. Results from animal studies also suggest that exposure to chloroform can cause liver, developmental and immune toxicity. Acute exposure to low levels of chloroform will cause nervous system toxicity.

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What is Trichloroacetic Acid (TCA)?

Member of haloacetic acids (HAAs) that form as byproducts when chlorine reacts with organic matter

Health Effects

Health protective benchmarks for TCA in drinking water have been developed based on liver toxicity and carcinogenicity observed in animal studies. EPA has classified TCA as a possible human carcinogen. Developmental toxicity has also been associated with exposure to TCA based on evidence from animal studies.

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What is Dibromochloromethane?

Member of trihalomethanes (THMs) that form in water treated with chlorine

Health Effects

Health protective benchmarks for DBCM have been developed based on liver toxicity and carcinogenicity observed in animal studies. EPA has classified DBCM as a possible human carcinogen based on animal evidence, while IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) says it is unclassifiable as a human carcinogen. Kidney toxicity has also been associated with DBCM based on evidence from animal studies. DBCM has been shown to produce DNA changes (genotoxicity) in laboratory studies.

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What is Dibromoacetic Acid (DBA)?

Member of haloacetic acids (HAAs) that form as byproducts when chlorine reacts with organic matter

Health Effects

Health protective benchmarks for DBA are based on carcinogenicity and liver toxicity observed in animal studies. The EPA has classified DBA as a probable human carcinogen. Results from animal studies also suggest that kidney, immune system, spleen and developmental toxicity are associated with exposure to BDCM. BDCM has been shown to produce DNA changes (genotoxicity) in laboratory studies.

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What is Perfluorobutanoic acid?

Part of a class of synthetic compounds known as polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) widely used to make products more resistant to stains, water, and grease. PFBA is a breakdown product of other PFAS compounds used in food packaging, stain resistant clothing and carpets, and was previously manufactured and used in the manufacturing of photographic film but has since been phased out of production.

Health Effects

As with many PFAS compounds, research into the health effects of PFBA is rapidly evolving. Animal studies have shown associations between elevated PFBA levels and liver and thyroid toxicity, as well as developmental effects.

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What is Lithium?

Lithium is a soft, silvery-white metal that belongs to the alkali metal group. It is highly reactive and flammable, and must be stored in mineral oil. Lithium is used in batteries, mood-stabilizing drugs, and other applications.

Health Effects

Exposure to lithium can lead to a range of health effects, including nausea, diarrhea, tremors, and in severe cases, lithium toxicity can cause kidney damage and neurological issues.

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